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To understand the farming system in Adilabad, secondary district- and mandal-level data from Central and State Government reports, peer-reviewed publications, and publicly available documents were extracted for collating statistics related to demography, agricultural status and socio-economic metrics (Kumar, 2010; NAIP Project Report, 2012; Sivaraj et al., 2012; Pandravada et al., 2013; Adilabad District Report, 2016; Reddy et al., 2017; Kumar et al., 2018; NITI Aayog Report, 2018; Telangana Districts Profile Report, 2018; Task Force Report, 2019). In addition, an ex-ante household survey was conducted with tribal farmer families in Utnoor mandal² in the years 2018–20. A total of 103 interviews and a few focus group discussions were conducted with the support of the local Non-Governmental Organization, Centre for Collective Development (NGO, CCD) (Figure 3). The survey/interviews covered questions related to demography, socio-economic variables, landholding, livestock management, crop cultivation with an emphasis on sorghum, and dietary patterns.

Two field experiments during postrainy (or rabi, Oct–Feb) seasons of 2017–18 (Year 1) and 2018–19 (Year 2) were conducted at ICRISAT research station located in Patancheru, Telangana (latitude 17°30′N; longitude 78°16′E; altitude 549 m). The experimental site with Vertisol (or black soil) of medium depth (~150 cm) was prepared according to the recommended sorghum cultivation practice (Trivedi, 2008). The experimental layout was a randomized complete block design with irrigation- and nitrogen-based multifactorial treatment as the main factor and genotype as sub-factor, randomized three times in blocks of each factor. The arrangement allowed a density of 15–16 plants m⁻². Weather data was recorded using TinyTag Ultra 2^® TGU-4500 data loggers (Gemini Dataloggers Ltd, Chichester, UK) placed at the canopy level of the crop.

Sixteen varieties of sorghum were subjected to three agronomic treatments as described in Blümmel et al. (2015): well-watered with high nitrogen input (WWHN); water stressed with high nitrogen input (WSHN); and water stressed with low nitrogen input (WSLN) (Figure 2). The well-watered (WW) plots were irrigated every 15 days, whereas water-stressed (WS) plots were irrigated only thrice during the vegetative stage. Plants under high nitrogen (HN) treatment (i.e., WWHN and WSHN) received a basal dosage of ammonium phosphate fertilizer at the rate of 200 kg ha⁻¹ and an additional top-dressing of urea at vegetative stage (~30–40 days after sowing). In contrast, the plants under low nitrogen (LN) treatment (i.e., WSLN) did not receive any fertilizer application throughout the experimentation. They had access to only the residual Nitrogen in the soil. Of the several agronomic traits measured, this article focuses only on stover and grain yield (SY and GY, respectively). Twelve plants per treatment were harvested at physiological maturity for recording yield parameter. Panicle and stover were separated after harvest and dried at 60°C for 72 h.

For selection of varieties for the FPVS, farmers' representatives were invited to score the standing crop in the 2017–18 rabi trial. Based on their feedback, SY, and GY, varieties from each treatment were ranked using a selection index with 80% weightage given to GY and 60% weightage to SY for capturing the dual-purpose functionality of the varieties:

Based on ranking from the on-station field trial (described above), three dual-purpose varieties– Phule Chitra (IC 523095; Gadakh et al., 2013), CSV22 (IC 552490; Gadakh et al., 2013), and improved landrace M35-1 (IC 552490; Reddy et al., 2009) were selected. These genotypes were tested along with the local landrace, Sevata jonna, for agronomic traits under WW and terminal WS conditions during the postrainy season of 2018–19 using high-throughput plant phenotyping platform, LysiField³ (Vadez et al., 2011) (Figure 3). Eight replicates of each genotype were maintained per water treatment in a completely randomized block design factorized for genotypes. The plants were scored for leaf senescence visually from the bottom leaves to the top at 80 and 87 days after sowing (DAS) in WS plants. The senescence scores ranged from 10 to 100%. Furthermore, the grain and fodder samples of the four varieties from the LysiField trial were processed for quantifying percentage of protein, fat and in vitro digestibility using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS; Instrument FOSS^® DS2500 with WINSI II software package) and existing robust calibration models (Choudhary et al., 2010; Blümmel et al., 2015).

On-farm trials were conducted at Utnoor mandal with the farmers linked to a local NGO (Centre for Collective Development) and farmer producer organization (FPO; Praja Mithra Rythu Federation). The experimental layout had genotypes in adjacent plots of 2.4 × 6 m dimension, i.e., each genotype in four rows of six-meter-long plots with 10 × 60 cm spacing. Farmers were asked to follow their usual management practice. During rabi 2018–19, Phule Chitra, CSV22, and M35-1 were cultivated by eight farmers. Based on their feedback, genotypes Phule Chitra and CSV22 were cultivated in trial plots of thirteen farmers in rabi 2019–20, along with Sevata jonna and local hybrid NSH-Sona for testing suitability of the open-pollinated genotypes compared to local seed options (Figure 3). Farmers' willingness to explore seed options and feedback on introduced genotypes (such as grain taste, grain and fodder quality and quantity, disease infestations, bird damage, crop management) were documented through interviews and focus group discussions (Figure 3). In addition, farmers were trained for selfing panicles to produce quality seeds using basic bags, thereby lowering their dependence on the market for seed.

Numeric data from interviews were converted into percentage metrics to assess the preference and distribution of a parameter across the farming community. Quantitative agronomic data were analyzed using unbalanced ANOVA in GenStat^® 18^th edition (VSN International, Hemel Hempstead, UK) and comparison of means within treatment and across treatments was done using Fisher's unprotected Least Significance Difference (LSD, P < 0.05) comparison. As there was a poor plant stand of Sevata jonna in the 2018 field trial, the genotype was excluded from the analysis. Grain quality spectral data from FOSS DS2500 were converted to amount of protein and fat per 100 g of seed using winISI software and predefined sorghum model. Narrative analysis method was used for documenting qualitative data from farmer feedback through interviews and focus group discussions.

In Adilabad, livelihood of farming communities depends predominantly on mixed crop-livestock systems. Long-term climate analysis shows that all mandals of Adilabad are prone to high or very high climatic risk threatening the livelihood and food security of tribal farming communities (Kumar et al., 2018; Figure 1B). About 94% of the farmers own <4 hectares of land. In this group, about 62% of the farmers own <2 hectares of land (i.e., are small and marginal farmers) (Figure 1D). Despite the small landholding, the farmers seem to be responsive to market prices and cultivate multiple crops accordingly in both rainy (kharif , Jun–Oct) and postrainy (rabi, Oct/Nov-Feb/Mar) seasons to meet their domestic and economic needs (Figures 1F,G). With strong regional market linkages and stable minimum support price⁴ farmers have adopted cash crops (cotton, soybean, pigeonpea, and chickpea) positively over the decades. Consequently, a strong downward trend in the area under cultivation of the region's staple dietary crop, sorghum, is seen from 1975 (0.15 m ha) to 2015 (0.008 m ha) (Adilabad District Report, 2016) (Figure 1E).

A total of 103 farm household interviews were conducted in the Utnoor region (Figures 4A,C). The farmers expressed that sorghum is an indispensable crop as it is cultivated for both grain and fodder in both kharif and rabi seasons. Both men and women of the community mentioned that their diets have gradually changed to include rice and wheat over the last 2–3 decades. However, they make an effort to have sorghum in at least one meal per day as it is considered to be more satiating and healthier than rice and wheat. Upon enquiring about farmers' preference for sorghum, taste was the most mentioned trait followed by stover yield, grain yield, drought adaptation, inputs requirements and pest resistance (Figure 4B). During the rabi cultivation, some farmers grew sorghum in high density to meet their fodder requirement for summer season at the expense of grain.

Based on the ex-ante survey, dual-purpose open-pollinated varieties (OPVs) of sorghum seemed to be a promising entry-point to address both the grain and fodder needs of the region. For testing this hypothesis, fourteen of well-characterized Government released sorghum varieties were tested along with widely popular improved landrace (M35-1) and local landrace (Sevata jonna) in the postrainy/rabi seasons of 2017–19 in ICRISAT. The on-station field trials at ICRISAT focused on screening the varieties in response to multifactorial treatments of irrigation and nitrogen: WWHN (high-input), WSHN, and WSLN (low-input) conditions. Farmer representatives scored the standing crop for traits such as stover, panicle type, presence of awns, and the taste of grain. They emphasized on varieties coping well-under low input (water stressed, low nitrogen) conditions. Table 1 summarizes the stover and grain yield along with the metric of ranking recorded in the varieties tested under high-input (WWHN) and low input (WSLN) conditions in rabi 2017–18 (data from rabi 2018–19 not shown, unpublished).

Consequently, sorghum varieties M35-1, CSV22, and Phule Chitra were selected for further detailed trials on-station and on-field at Adilabad. The on-station trials at ICRISAT focused on screening the quantity and quality traits of the varieties in response to WW and WS conditions. Whereas, the on-farm farmer-participatory varietal selection (FPVS) trials at Utnoor were conducted to assess farmers' willingness to explore seed options and engage with the farming community to understand their preferences and the regional production conditions.

The LysiField trial conducted on-station in 2019–20 aimed to dissect the impact of drought on agronomic and quality traits (SY, GY, leaf senescence, protein and fat content of grains, and in vitro organic matter digestibility of stover) (Figures 5–7). Harvest index, an important criterion in crop selection representing the percentage of grain yield to total aerial biomass ranged from 10–34 to 24–47% in WS and WW plants, respectively (Supplementary Figure 1A). A very tight relationship between grain yield and HI was observed in WS plants (r² = 0.90, n = 18), unlike the WW plants (r² = 0.42, n = 17) (Supplementary Figure 1A). In WW plants, the residual of seed weight not explained by HI, correlated significantly with stover weight (r² = 0.89; n = 17; Supplementary Figure 1B). Leaf senescence in WS plants was scored at 80 DAS and 87 DAS. As most of WS plants had 100% leaf senescence by 87 DAS, we depended on the 80 DAS score for analysis. SY and GY showed contrasting relationship trends with leaf senescence (r² SY = 0.17; r² GY = −0.41) (GY; Figure 5). The inverse of leaf senescence was interpreted as stay-green score. Among the 4 genotypes, M35-1 had the highest stay-green score at 80 DAS (51%) followed by CSV22 (30%), Sevata jonna (26%), and Phule Chitra (19%) (data not shown).

Under WW and WS conditions, the in vitro organic matter digestibility (IVOMD) of stover ranged from 51 to 61%. No significant genotypic variation for IVOMD was observed among the varieties tested. Also, no significant relationship between stover yield and the IVOMD under WW (r² = 0.06; n = 11) and WS (r² = 0.30, n = 8) conditions was observed (Supplementary Figure 2). However, a positive relationship between leaf senescence at 80 DAS and IVOMD was found in WS plants (r² = 0.62, n = 7) (Figure 6). In WS plants, seeds with higher protein content had lower fat content as opposed to WW plants (WS r² = −0.73, n = 8; WW r² = 0.52, n = 6; Figure 7).

The twenty-one farmer-participatory trials conducted during 2018–20 in collaboration with the local NGO offered enriching knowledge exchange between the project partners. The farmers compared the harvested material for several parameters: morphological traits (e.g., presence of awns, panicle compactness, secondary branching of panicle rachis), agronomic traits (e.g., plant height, stover yield, pest resistance, and water requirement) and quality traits (e.g., hardness and taste of seed, and taste of cooked product (roti⁵ and upma⁶). Focus group discussions with over 40 farmers and results of the FPVS feedback survey showed a high variability in farms, crop management, farmers' preference and willingness of farmers to explore. Most farmers preferred Phule Chitra over CSV22, for its long panicle, thick stems, seed set, and seed boldness.

Several farmers expressed their positive attitude toward the newly introduced varieties and are planning to continue cultivation:

According to the participants of the focus group discussions, the taste of the food prepared with Phule Chitra was comparable to that of their local landrace. Some concerns were shown regarding the sweetness of the grains of both varieties, which attracted birds during the seed maturation stage. This required farmers to spend more time in the field and to install bird scaring devices. By contrast, the bent compact panicles of the landraces tend to reduce damage by birds (Figure 8).

Adilabad is one of the many underdeveloped districts in India that is tackling poverty, poor health, education, and basic infrastructure deficits (NITI Aayog Report, 2018). The region has a high proportion of indigenous populations (>30%) belonging to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes that face complex socio-economic and political limitations. The livelihood status of farming communities in this region is further challenged by climate risks. Ceccarelli (2015) stated that crop interventions meeting farmers' needs and preferences are vital for its adoption and integration in the existing system. During our ex-ante survey with the farming community, three key constraints were highlighted: (i) fodder scarcity as one of the important concerns for the farming community; (ii) the limitation of available sorghum seed option to landraces and hybrids; and (iii) the loss of seed purity in landraces over the years. Our initial interactions with the farmers at Utnoor focused on reviving landraces (Rajani, 2018) that hold special cultural and dietary value to the locals (Pandravada et al., 2013; Paltasingh and Paliwal, 2014). These shortcomings indicate that training farmers to maintain purity of seeds and increasing seed options would benefit the sorghum food system among these communities (Figure 3C; Voorhaar and Anbazhagan, 2019). In addition, open-pollinated varieties (OPVs) would drastically reduce farmers' dependence on the market for hybrid seeds. Therefore, we explored possible crop options that could fit and benefit the farmers.

Several reports suggest that dual-purpose varieties with superior grain and stover traits can increase overall farm productivity, particularly in (semi)-arid regions with mixed crop-livestock systems where fodder is scarce (Rao and Hall, 2003; Sharma et al., 2010; Erenstein et al., 2011). Ceccarelli (1996) explicitly highlighted the importance of selecting varieties in unfavorable or limited conditions prior to deployment as most of the varieties are bred through cycles of well-managed high input selection trials. In this study, the on-station trials at ICRISAT were conducted under both high- and low-input conditions for quantifying the agronomic traits (stover yield, grain yield, harvest index and stay-green trait) and quality traits (stover digestibility, grain protein and fat) across the dual-purpose varieties–Phule Chitra, CSV22, M35-1 and Sevata jonna. Rao and Hall (2003) stated that yield benefits and quality of produce are not the only selection criteria for farmers for varietal adoption. Similarly, the participating farmers ranked taste first followed by stover yield, grain yield, and adaptability to drought, panicle compactness and pest resistance. They also mentioned several morphological and crop traits (as mentioned in results section) that were considered while selecting the varieties from existing the sorghum elite collection.

Of the agronomic traits measured in the on-station trials, we would like to highlight the stay-green trait as it is closely linked with continued photosynthetic capacity of the crop in the post-flowering stage and adaptation to terminal drought (Prasad et al., 2014). Quality traits assessed using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) indicated that stover digestibility, unlike grain protein and fat content, was not severely affected by water stress. As seen in Figure 6, a positive relationship (r² = 0.62) between with stover digestibility (IVOMD) and leaf senescence was observed. This is an important visual trait as every 1% increase in digestibility of sorghum stover can result in 6–8% increase in milk productivity in livestock (Kristjanson and Zerbini, 1999; Zerbini and Thomas, 2003; Hall et al., 2004). Increasing milk production in the region will enhance the nutrition of women and children, and enhance household income through the sale of surplus quantity fodder and milk. Further, NIR-based grain quality analysis showed an inverse relationship between protein and fat content in WS plants (Figure 7). Srivastava (2018) documented that smallholder farmers of Adilabad, commonly consume what they cultivated and conserve a portion of their harvested seeds for next season sowing. In the study site, farmers often stored their harvested seeds in jute/plastic bags or earthen pots at home. As sorghum grains tend to get rancid upon storage, seed types that have lower fat and higher protein would be suitable for the smallholder farmer household consumption.

Genotype–environment (G × E) interactions are complex and they get further complicated with crop management and resources accessible during cultivation (G × E × M). Farming communities manage these complexities in the best way possible with the options they have access to. Introducing new OPVs through farmer-participatory methods was helpful in testing if the varieties met the farmers' requirements (taste and stover) (Voorhaar and Anbazhagan, 2019). Although our FPVS trials are still ongoing (25 farmers participated in 2020–21 and more to be included in 2021–22), until now, the varieties Phule Chitra and CSV22 have been well-received and adopted by the participating sorghum farmers. In the absence of formal seed banks, the responsibility of conserving seeds lies on the community itself. During our study, farmers were trained to use selfing article bags to maintain seed purity and enable farmers to produce their own seeds (landraces or the OPVs) independently. In addition to the efforts to revive landraces, the participating sorghum farmers' overall response to Phule Chitra and CSV22's was positive. Several farmers informed that they will continue to practice panicle selfing to maintain seed purity, cultivate Sevata jonna for household consumption and OPVs Phule Chitra and CSV22 in high density for fodder. A farmer from Chintakara village continued to cultivate CSV22 and Phule Chitra beyond the 2017–18 FPVS, proactively performed selfing and shared the harvested seeds with other farmers of his village. Although this appears as a singular activity, within close-knit communities such as the tribal community in the study area, knowledge transfer through demonstration, experience, and word-of-mouth plays a significant role. Based on the outcome of the study, conservation of landraces and integration of OPVs, can be a valuable short-term solution to strengthen the sorghum seed system in Adilabad.