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The Computerized Family Relations Test (CFRT) for children is an innovative measure that aims to assess the quality of family relationships from the child’s perspective. However, the CFRT has its origins in the Dutch Nijmegen Family Relations Test (NFRT; Oud and Welzen, 1989) that has been applied in several studies (e.g., Mathijssen et al., 1998; Delsing et al., 2003, 2005a,b).

During the development of the NFRT, Oud and Welzen (1989) attempted to operationalize family theories in psychological research, resulting in the development of a family relationships model based on the following six dimensions: Restrictiveness, Affection, Vulnerability, Justice, Acknowledgment, and Trust. The model is grounded in the theoretical framework of two systemic family therapists, Helm Stierlin’s (1978) binding theory and Ivan Boszormenyi-Nagy’s (Boszormenyi-Nagy and Spark, 1984) loyalty theory, various experiences of family and child psychotherapists, and information gathered directly from children. Two dimensions – Restrictiveness and Affection – originate from the psychoanalytically-oriented binding theory of Stierlin (1978), which refers to different types of transactions between the parent and the child on the id, ego and superego levels. The remaining four dimensions–Justice, Vulnerability, Acknowledgment and Trust–form key elements of the loyalty theory of Boszormenyi-Nagy (Boszormenyi-Nagy and Spark, 1984), which assumes that interpersonal perceptions of loyalty within the family are the product of the closely intertwined but distinctive dimensions of justice and trust. On one hand, children perceive their parents as just if they feel they are being treated fairly in the context of family obligations. On the other hand, children perceive their parents as trustworthy if they feel valuable and loved.

Based on this model, Fitriana (2011) developed an Indonesian version of the NFRT called the Bandung Family Relations Test (BFRT). The confirmatory factor analysis showed that the six dimensions of family relationships could be divided into two second-order factors, which describe control (Restrictiveness and Justice), and support (Affection, Vulnerability, Acknowledgment, and Trust). The division of control versus support is a common categorization in research on parent–child relationships (Tynkkynen et al., 2012; Hooghe et al., 2013).

The CFRT consists of 67 items, the same as the original NFRT, forming six scales: Restrictiveness (12 items e.g., “This person often bosses me around”), Affection (10 items e.g., “If I go away, this person will really miss me”), Vulnerability (7 items e.g., “I like to know what this person thinks or feels”), Justice (12 items e.g., “If I promise this person something, then I also do it”), Acknowledgment (13 items e.g., “This person often tells me that I do something well”), and Trust (13 items e.g., “This person protects me”). The main change is in the administration of the CFRT from a traditional pen-and paper questionnaire to a computerized version. While developing the CFRT, we translated the items in accordance with the International Test Commission (ITC) guidelines for translating and adapting tests in cross-cultural research (Brislin, 1986; Hambleton, 2005). The procedure included the following steps: (1) forward-translation of all items from the existing English version of the NFRT to Polish, (2) consultation over the results with two experts in child psychology and cross-cultural research regarding the linguistic, developmental and cultural suitability of the test, (3) back-translation of all items from Polish to English, (4) receiving authors’ comments and suggestions, (5) preparation of the final version of CFRT prior to the introduction of all recommended modifications.

The CFRT has been programmed in Flash software and consists of an instruction, an animated guide on how to answer the questions, and a set of exemplar pictures of female and male silhouettes, from which the test-taker chooses those most similar to his or her mother and father. The graphical representations of parents facilitate the child’s parental identification, especially among younger children. Children assess relationships with their father and mother separately, with the possibility of selecting a single parent option. The questions appear in two synchronized ways, displaying at the top of the screen above the silhouettes and read aloud to the test-taker by a previously recorded voice. In contrast to the NFRT and BFRT, CFRT has a continuous response scale, which we believe is more accurate than traditional Likert-type scales and does not limit the test-taker to one particular category. With the use of a specially designed slider bar that is similar to a thermometer, the child is asked to indicate the extent to which he or she agrees that the item is applicable to each parent, ranking from totally agree (top scale—Yes) to totally disagree (bottom scale—No), or uncertain (middle point), as presented in Figure 1. Data collected by this approach meet the assumptions of many statistical analyses, including confirmatory factor analysis—CFA (Treiblmaier and Filzmoser, 2011).

We recorded and randomized the display of the items to minimize the impact of reading ability on participants’ responses (Borelli et al., 2010) and to avoid order effect, decreases in children’s motivation (e.g., when seeing that others perform faster), and increases in carry-over, fatigue, priming, and learning effects. It is worth noting that item order differentiation has become a common practice in psychological research (Khorramdel and Frebort, 2011).

In total, 404 Polish children, ranging in age from 8 to 13 years (M = 11.0; SD = 1.17), participated in this study. Of the participating children, 54% were girls (N = 219) and 46% boys (N = 185). All participants were primary school pupils in grades three to six.

Additionally, a randomly selected group of the children N = 60 (55% girls and 45% boys), aged 8–13 years (M = 11.0; SD = 1.16), participated in the test–retest procedure after a 6-week interval.

First, the institutional review board at the Psychology Institute, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw reviewed this project and gave us permission to implement it. An invitation letter to take part in a research project on the role of family relationships in childhood and adolescence was sent to 12 public primary schools across Poland, of which ten agreed to participate. After we gained consent from the school principals to carry out the project, the main researcher attended parent–teacher meetings that took place regularly at the schools to introduce the nature of the project and invite parents and their children to participate. Parents received a study description with a consent form for their children to participate in this study. Of all invited parents, 87% provided written consent for their children to participate. Only children with parental written consent participated. Participation in this study was voluntary and anonymous. The research was conducted at schools during Information Technology (IT) lessons and in groups of 10 to 12 children with the presence of one researcher and one trained graduate student to ensure the standardized setting of the data collection and participants’ confidentiality. The results were analyzed at the group level and for scientific purposes exclusively.

The research equipment contained a computer, with a headset. Before the study began, all participating children were asked for oral permission to take part. The main researcher, with the help of a trained graduate student, explained the nature of the study and its procedure. Children were also informed about anonymity and their right to withdraw from the testing at any time without consequences. The researchers stressed that there were no good or bad answers and children were asked to provide honest answers, reflecting their perceptions about the quality of relationships in their families. The first item was neutral to enable the children to practice answering the questions. The researchers were available during the whole study to provide support in case of any questions or difficulties children might have had.

We examined the reliability of the CFRT scales by calculating McDonald’s omega coefficients for each scale, separately for mother and father ratings, and the internal stability was assessed through a test–retest procedure after a 6-week interval. Reliability estimates are presented in Table 1.

With regard to mother and father ratings, CFRT showed good reliabilities for all scales, with Acknowledgment and Trust scoring highest, ω = 0.84 for mothers and ω = 0.86 for fathers, respectively. Parallel to the Dutch data, in the Polish results, Vulnerability achieved the lowest reliability, ω = 0.57 for mothers and ω = 0.56 for fathers. Test–retest coefficients showed higher stability for father ratings r = 0.71 than for mother ratings r = 0.67.

We tested two models, first-order CFA and second-order CFA, separately for mothers and fathers. The first-order CFA model consisted of six latent variables. Each latent variable was built upon three parcels as observed variables. The CFRT’s factor structure was examined using chi-squared, the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), the comparative fit index (CFI), and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). A non-significant chi-squared, SRMR values below 0.08, CFI values above 0.95, and RMSEA values below 0.06 are recommended (Hu and Bentler, 1999). Model fit coefficients (as presented in Table 2) were acceptable; thus, it can be concluded that the measurement model of six separate dimensions fit the data well. However, some sets of dimensions were highly intercorrelated, which might indicate that children did not differentiate between them. In the CFA for mothers, three correlations were above 0.80 (the highest correlations were between Acknowledgment–Trust and Affection–Trust and equaled 0.88). In the CFA for fathers, four correlations were above 0.80 (the highest was between Acknowledgment–Trust and equaled 0.90). Thus, based on previous research assumptions (Fitriana, 2011; Hooghe et al., 2013), we included control and support in the second-order CFA model. Model fit coefficients for the two types of models tested are presented in Table 2. Second-order models are presented graphically in Figure 2 for mothers and in Figure 3 for fathers.

The analysis confirmed our expectations. The appropriate parcels loaded onto the six latent variables. Additionally, six scales loaded onto two second-order factors in the second-order CFA. Restrictiveness and Justice loaded onto the control factor, and Vulnerability, Affection, Acknowledgment, and Trust loaded onto the support factor.

To test whether CFRT measures the same construct, i.e., family relationships, in the same manner across the child’s parents, measurement invariance across the children’s assessments of the quality of family relations with mother and father was tested (the results are presented in Table 3).

The following levels of measurement invariance were tested: the configural level (all conditions have the same pattern of factor loadings); the metric level (factor loadings are constrained to be equal across the compared conditions); and the scalar level (the indicator intercepts are constrained to be equal across various conditions; Vandenberg and Lance, 2000; Davidov et al., 2014). These three levels were examined in the first-order CFA model. In addition, we tested whether the second-order factors had the same meaning in the assessment of relations with mothers and fathers by constraining the loadings in the CFA to be equal. The results showed that changes in CFI were less than 0.01, changes in RMSEA were less than 0.015, and changes in SRMR were less than 0.03, which supports invariance of the measurement across mothers and fathers, according to Chen (2007).

Repeated-measures MANOVA was conducted to test gender effect on the perception of family relations with mother versus father ratings within factor and child’s gender between factor. The results showed significant multivariate effects for five out of the six CFRT dimensions: Affection F_(1,390) = 54.37, p < 0.001; Vulnerability F_(1,390) = 46.86, p < 0.001; Justice F_(1,392) = 5.05, p < 0.05; Acknowledgment F_(1,390) = 23.73, p < 0.001; and Trust F_(1,390) = 7.94, p < 0.01 with mother receiving higher ratings compared to father ratings. The multivariate effect for Restrictiveness was not significant F_(1,390) = 1.60, p = 0.206. No significant interaction effects between mother-father ratings and the child’s gender were observed.

All scales of the CFRT were expected to be associated with measures of psychological adjustment. For all assumptions made, Pearson’s bivariate correlations were used to determine the associations between the CFRT scales and target variables, including depression, anxiety symptoms, and prosocial behavior measured with the RCADS and SDQ. The findings revealed that higher ratings on Restrictiveness were associated with higher levels of child’s depressive symptoms in relations with their mother (r = 0.38; p < 0.01) and father (r = 0.31; p < 0.01) and with higher levels of children’s anxiety (mother r = 0.34; p < 0.01 and father r = 0.35; p < 0.01). Justice in relations with both parents was negatively correlated with depression (mother ratings r = –0.45; p < 0.01 and father ratings r = –0.40; p < 0.01) and anxiety (mother ratings r = –0.34; p < 0. 01 and father ratings r = –0.38; p < 0.01). Three of the four support factors (Affection, Acknowledgment, Trust) negatively correlated with depression. Justice correlated positively with prosocial behavior (mother ratings r = 0.31; p < 0.01 and father ratings r = 0.33; p < 0.01).

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.